Category: Class-8 History

---

1. What were the consequences of the Battle of Plassey?

The Battle of Plassey (1757) was a turning point in Indian history. Robert Clive’s victory over Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah established British supremacy in Bengal. Mir Jafar was installed as a puppet Nawab, while the Company gained effective control over Bengal’s vast resources and revenue. This victory ultimately laid the foundation for British colonial rule across India.

---

2. What do you understand by ‘Dual Government’?

The Dual Government was introduced by Robert Clive in Bengal in 1765. Under this system, the Nawab held nominal administrative authority, while the East India Company controlled the Diwani rights, i.e., revenue collection and finances. In effect, the Nawab governed without power and the Company held power without responsibility. This led to exploitation and mismanagement, and was abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772.

---

3. Which were the main European countries competing in Bharat?

During the 17th and 18th centuries, five major European powers competed for trade and influence in India — Portugal, the Netherlands (Dutch), Great Britain, France, and Denmark. Among these, Britain emerged as the dominant power, especially after defeating France in the Carnatic Wars.

---

4. What were the reasons for deterioration in the relationship between the East India Company and the Nawab of Bengal?

Several factors strained the relationship between the Company and the Nawab. The Company misused trade privileges and avoided paying customs duties. Officials exploited the Dastak system for personal gain. The unauthorised fortification of Calcutta was seen as a direct challenge to the Nawab’s sovereignty. Additionally, the Company sheltered the Nawab’s political enemies. These grievances collectively led to the conflict at Plassey in 1757.

---

5. When and where did the British East India Company first establish its business in Bharat?

The British East India Company, chartered in 1600, established its first trading post in India at Surat, Gujarat, in 1613, after receiving permission from Mughal Emperor Jahangir. From Surat, the Company gradually expanded, setting up settlements at Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690), which later became the centres of British power in India.

---

📝 Answers are framed as per CBSE NCERT Class 8 History syllabus.

A. 1. c. 2. d. 3. a. 4. a. 5. b.
B. 1. colonialism

2. Lord Lytton, arms
3. Surendranath Banerjee
4. boycott, Bengal
5. Sallimulah Khan
6. Rabindranath Tagore
7. Civil-Disobedience
8. Subhas Chandra Bose
9. 19th 10. 1928
   C. 1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. T
   D. 1. e. 2. a. 3. b. 4. c. 5. d.
   E. 1. Through the Boycott Movement the
   Indians were asked to boycott the
   foreign goods, specifically the
   English goods and instead wear and
   promote the Indian made goods.
10. ‘Vande Mataram’ was written by
    Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyaya
    and was sung in the streets of
    Calcutta as a mark of protest against
    the Partition of Bengal in 1905.
11. The mass phase of the National
    Movement was started by Mahatma
    Gandhi with the beginning of the
    Champaran Satyagraha and then the
    launching of the Non- Cooperation
    Movement and the Khilafat
    Movement in 1920. After that the
    Civil Disobedience Movement was
    launched followed by the Quit India
    Movement.
12. The ‘no changers’ were those in the
    INC who did not want the Congress
    programme to change after the
    calling off of the Non- Cooperation
    and the Khilafat Movement. their
    constructivist programme involved
    spreading their movement to the
    rural countryside and increasing the
    base of the Congress party.
13. Direct Action Day was the day
    when the Congress won the elections
    with overwhelming majority and the
    Muslim League decided to boycott
    it. This happened on 16th August
    1946 and the day was observed as
    the Direct Action Day. On this day
    riots broke out between the Hindu
    Muslims all over the country.
    F. 1. The different political associations
    that came up towards the end of the
    19th century were British India
    Association, Madras Native
    Association, Poona Sarvajanik
    Sabha, Bombay Presidency
    Association and the All India
    National Conference.
14. The vision of the moderates who
    played an important role during the
    formative years of the Congress was
    that they believed in the good nature
    of the British who they thought
    respected the ideas of freedom and
    justice, they sought gradual reforms
    and not sudden independence, they
    wanted the British to train the
    Indians about self governance and
    they wanted changes through
    peaceful and constitutional methods.
15. The Morley Minto Reforms paved
    way for separate electorates in India.
    A system of indirect elections were
    introduced in India but some seats
    were reserved for the Muslims only,
    making it a separatist reform
    intended to divided the people.
16. Gandhiji devised two ways to
    protest against the British- one was
    ‘Satyagraha’ or search for the truth
    and ‘ahimsa’ which means non
    violence.
17. The Civil Disobedience was
    launched with the objective of
    forcing the government to abolish
    the tax monopoly, to break the salt
    monopoly through the Dandi march
    and demand for complete
    independence of India.
    G. 1. The Arms Act (1878) passed by
    Lord Lytton prohibited Indians from
    possessing firearms without licence.
    The Illbert Bill (1883) passed
    during the viceroyalty of Lord
    Ripon allowed the judges of Indian
    origin to try Europeans in India. The
    Europeans in India reacted harshly.
    Ultimately, the government amended
    the Bill.
18. During the early phase of the INC,
    moderate leaders like Dadabhai
    Naoroji and G K Gokhale believed
    in association with the British and
    demanded constitutional changes
    within legal parameters.
    As demands of the moderates
    remained unfulfilled, a new radical
    group emerged in the Indian
    National Congress. This group,
    known as the Radicals, advocated
    the attainment for Swaraj. Some
    prominent, extremist leaders were
    Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal
    and Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
    H. 1. The ‘Poona Pact’ was signed
    between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and
    Mahatma Gandhi by which seats
    were reserved for the ‘Depressed
    classes’ out of the general electorate
    seats in the provincial legislature.
19. The Muslim League was formed in
    Dacca under the leadership of
    Sallimulah Khan because they
    thought that after the formation of
    the Congress, their interests would
    not be properly represented. They
    supported the Partition of Bengal
    and later appealed to the Viceroy,
    Lord Minto for separate electorates.
    The British used this disunity by
    following the policy of divide and
    rule and playing the Hindus against
    the Muslims with every possible
    opportunity.
    

A. 1. b. 2. d. 3. a. 4. d. 5. b.
B. 1. Rationalism, equality

2. Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain
3. Behramji Malabari
4. Sati
5. Lord William Bentinck
6. Widowhood
7. Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
   Monotheism
8. untouchables
9. Savitri Bai Phule
10. Gulamgiri, equality, caste
    discrimination
    C. 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. F
    D. 1. d. 2. e. 3. a. 4. b. 5. c.
11. h. 7. j. 8. i. 9. g. 10. f
    E. 1. With the introduction of English
    education, schools were opened up
    only for the girls which attracted at
    least some students from the rich
    families. Slowly more girls joined
    the schools and they began to get
    education which vastly improved
    their condition with in the family
    and the society. Slowly they also
    began to take part in the nationalist
    activities and play a big role in the
    freedom movement of the country.
12. The women who wrote about the
    society were Tarabai Shinde and
    Pandita Ramabai, wrote and
    published their critical views on the
    role of women in society.
13. John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune,
    along with Ishwar Chandra
    Vidyasagar brought about a lot of
    reforms for the education of the
    girls. He opened the first school for
    girls in Calcutta in 1849. He also
    opened many schools between 1857
    and 1858 to promote girl’s education.
14. With change in laws,‘Sarda Act’
    1929, increased the age of consent
    to 14 for females and 18 for males.
15. The prime areas where Brahmo
    Samaj focused its work were
    monotheism, improvement in trhe
    position of women and liberation of
    society from the illogical rituals and
    superstitious practices. Its main
    focus was on eradication of ‘sati’ as
    well as promotion of widow
    remarriage and prohibition on the
    early marriage of girls.
    F. 1. Widows and widowhood were
    considered inauspicious and once a
    widow, women were expected to
    live a very secluded, austere life,
    away from the social celebrations.
    Their very presence was seen as a
    bad omen. Because they did not
    have any access over property,
    neither were they welcome in their
    parents’ house nor were they given
    any respect by her in- laws. In short
    their life was miserable beyond
    comparison. Their condition was
    slightly improved by the passing of
    the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856
    by Lord Dalhousie and it was only
    in the year 1856 that the first widow
    remarriage took place. Besides this,
    Lord William Bentinck passed the
    Anti- Sati Act that banned the evil
    practice of sati.
16. He laid the foundation of the
    Brahmo Samaj in 1830. It aimed
    to preach monotheism (belief in
    one God), improve the position of
    women in society and liberate the
    s o c i e t y f r o m r i t u a l s a n d
    superstitious practices. He led a
    campaign against the practise of
    sati (sati pratha) through his
    journal Sambad Kaumudi and
    convinced people that the cruel
    practice of sati was not permitted
    by the Shastras. His tireless
    campaign persuaded the British
    Governor General William
    Bentinck to abolish sati.
17. Satya Shodhak Samaj was founded
    by the great social reformer Jyotiba
    Phule who hailed from a family of
    flower sellers. The aim of the Satya
    Shodhak Samaj was to improve the
    condition of the oppressed classes
    and propagate caste equality. He
    gave great importance to education
    and founded a library for the low
    caste people along with a school for
    the girls.
18. The founder of the All India
    Depressed Classes Welfare
    Association was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
    and the reason behind its creation
    was upliftment of the lower classes
    of the society and promoting
    awareness. He believed that
    education would help the lower
    castes to improve their economic
    conditions and one of the important
    purposes of the Association was to
    spread education among the poorer
    sections of the society.
19. The British rule brought about many
    changes in the Indian society which
    in the long run helped reduce caste
    rigidities. These were-
    • No legal discrimination was carried
    out by the laws that they made.
    • Railways was introduced by them
    which brought people
    • With the introduction of western
    education, the caste boundaries also
    were blurred
    • Migration of people, specifically
    those in the army
    • The First World War also caused
    people to come together and fight a
    war in the foreign land, thereby
    blurring the inequalities
    G. 1. In pre-colonial India, the social
    status of women was very low. They
    had no major role in the family.
    Till the early 19th century, Indian
    women had a very low status. They
    were denied education and married
    off at a young age. Sati Pratha or
    the practice of sati was common and
    widows were not allowed to
    remarry.
20. Dayanand Saraswati established the
    Arya Samaj in 1875. Like the
    Brahmo Samaj, it worked towards
    the upliftment of women. As the
    founder of the Arya Samaj, he
    strongly opposed child marriage and
    favoured widow remarriage.
    Child marriage was declared illegal
    in 1872, largely due to the efforts of
    the Brahmo Samaj.
    Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned
    against sati through the Brahmo
    Samaj.
    H. 1. In pre-colonial India, the social
    status of women was very low. They
    had no major role in the family. All
    major decisions in a woman’s life
    were taken first by her father, next
    by her husband, and later by her
    son. Women did not have the right
    to inherit their father’s property.
21. B. R. Ambedkar was born into the
    Mahar caste, whose members were
    considered untouchables. So, he
    devoted his entire life to fighting
    against caste oppression. He
    organised the All India Scheduled
    Caste Federation for this purpose.
    He also organised a number of nonviolent campaigns to assert the right
    of the untouchables to enter the
    temples and to draw water from
    public wells.

A. 1. b. 2. b. 3. a. 4. c 5. a.
B. 1. sanskrit, higher 2. Religion, logic

3. community
4. linguist, oriental
5. Warren Hastings
6. William Jones
7. Indian 8. Benaras
8. Religious, moral
9. Anglicists, East
   C. 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T
   D. 1. d. 2. c. 3. e. 4. b. 5. a.
   E. 1. The pre colonial education that was
   set up in India was very different
   from the colonial education setup
   because students were educated in
   the ‘pathshalas’ and ‘madrasas’
   where the main topics that were
   taught were law, religion,
10. Sir William Jones who was a
    linguist by passion and a Supreme
    Court judge by profession, who
    enjoyed a deep friendship with
    Warren Hastings and took keen
    interest in matters like the study of
    the oriental languages, grammar
    and poetry and in Indian texts on
    law, philosophy and religion.
11. Both Rabindranath Tagore and
    Mahatma Gandhi were in favour of
    native education but while Gandhiji
    was completely against western
    education or any influence from the
    west, Rabindranath Tagore was in
    favour of taking the best from the
    western world and adopting it to the
    Indian situation.
12. According to the ‘Nai Talim’ of
    Gandhiji, basic education was the
    solution to all the education related
    problems in India. He suggested
    that every child needed to know all
    kinds of skills that would help him/
    her in the future and it was through
    education that these skills would be
    acquired. He strongly criticized
    western education and created a
    model of education that would help
    India recover her sense of dignity,
    holistically develop the child by
    educating him/her- body, mind and
    soul and make them economically
    productive human beings.
13. Shantiniketan was founded by
    Rabindranath Tagore with the
    intention of fostering intellectual
    curiosity among the children,
    putting emphasis on self motivation,
    allowing the students to grasp the
    richness of the Indian traditions. He
    believed that learning in the open
    would help the students understand
    better and learn for live.
    F. 1. The orientalists were of the opinion
    that the education in India show be
    for the benefit of the Indians.
    Therefore education could not be
    given in any other languages apart
    from the vernacular languages or
    the mother tongue. It was supported
    by noted colonial masters like
    Warren Hastings and Sir William
    Jones. There were others as well
    like H.T. Colebrook, Nathaniel
    Halhed and Jonathan Duncan all of
    whom were interested in imparting
    education in India in the Indian
    languages.
14. The provisions of the Charter Act
    of 1813 were-
    • The British Parliament licensed
    Christian missionaries to come to
    India to introduce useful knowledge
    and to bring about religious and
    moral improvements
    • It asked the government to set aside
    a sum of 1 lakh from the Indian
    revenue to direct it towards the
    education of the natives
    • The government however continued
    to encourage traditional learning
    and did not touch the amount till
    1823 as they did not know how to
    use it.
15. From the early 19th century, many
    thinkers from different parts of
    India began to feel that Western
    education would help modernise
    India. They urged the British to
    open more schools, colleges and
    universities and spend more money
    on education. This trend is best
    exemplified in Raja Ram Mohan
    Roy who forcefully articulated the
    benefits of Western education. Yet
    there were some Indians like
    Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath
    Tagore, who did not like the British
    educational system. They began to
    question British education policy.
    As the Nationalist Movement
    gathered momentum, particularly
    after the partition of Bengal and the
    beginning of Swadeshi and Boycott
    movements, many other Indians
    also began to not only question the
    educational policies of the British
    government, but also advocated
    their boycott. Moreover, during the
    Anti-Partition Movement, students
    had been very active.
16. Recommendations made by Wood’s
    Despatch were-
    • Education was expected to promote
    an economic understanding whereby
    Indians would understand the
    benefits of the British rule and
    thereby adopt a western lifestyle.
    • Through the moral qualities so
    promoted by the education so
    imparted, Indians would attain
    higher levels of morality and
    b e c o m e m o r e h o n e s t a n d
    trustworthy.
    • It emphasized the importance of
    vernacular languages although it
    held English at the helm.
    • It proposed to set up vernacular
    schools in villages at the lowest
    stage, followed by Anglovernacular
    high schools and affiliated colleges
    at the district level.
    • It proposed the formation of a
    Department of Public Instruction
    under the charge of a Director in
    each province
    • Universities in the model of
    London University were proposed
    to be set up in Calcutta, Bombay
    and Madras.
    • It mentioned the need for vocational
    training and setting up of technical
    training institutes including teachers’
    training institutes.
17. After the Wood’s Despatch, colonial
    education in India continued to be
    directed by several other
    commissions. Let us take a quick
    look at some of them.
    • Hunter Commission, 1882–83: Set
    up under the chairmanship of Sir
    William W Hunter, its main
    recommendation was to take
    special care for the extension of
    primary education in vernacular in
    India. This was to be managed by
    local government bodies. The
    committee came up with 200 other
    recommendations and the overall
    impact of the Commission was to
    increase in number of students in
    secondary schools and colleges.
    • The Indian Universities Act, 1904:
    The Act increased government
    control over universities and the
    control of universities over private
    colleges.
    • Education Policy, 1913: In 1906,
    the princely state of Baroda
    introduced compulsory primary
    education within its territories.
    There was much pressure on the
    Government of India to do the
    same. However, the government
    could only agree in principle to
    remove illiteracy.
    • T h e S a d l e r U n i v e r s i t y
    Commission, 1917– 19: This
    recommended a 12-year school
    course before entering the university
    and setting up of intermediate
    colleges.
    • In 1929 there was the Hartog
    Committee report emphasising the
    quality of education rather than
    quantity and finally, in 1944– 49 the
    Radhakrishnan Committee was set
    up under Dr S Radhakrishnan, who
    later served as the President of
    India, to suggest improvements in
    higher education.
    G. 1. The difference traditional system of
    education and modern system of
    education are-
    • there were no classrooms, no
    textbooks, no roll call and not even
    school buildings in the traditional
    schools while modern system of
    education system have all these
    features
    • traditional schools were based on
    the requirements of the local people
    while in modern schools, the
    requirements were more global
    with a wider outlook
    • traditional schools were very
    affordable and did not require any
    fees while that is not the case with
    modern schools
    • traditional schools were based on
    local life cycles with children often
    not going to school during harvest
    seasons. While in the modern
    schools, attendance is a must apart
    from the scheduled holidays
    • learning was done in local
    languages and traditional knowledge
    was imparted while in modern
    schools, English was the method of
    education with subjects like
    geography and mathematics being
    a part of it
    • textbooks and notebooks became
    mandatory for modern schools
    while knowledge was passed from
    one generation to another in the
    traditional system of education
18. Difference between the Orientalists
    and the Anglicists-
    Orientalists
    • They were headed by people like
    Warren Hastings, H.H. Wilson and
    Sir William Jones.
    • They wanted that the Indians be
    educated in their own mother
    tongues.
    • They came to study the richness of
    the Indian culture as they had heard
    a lot about it.
    Anglicists
    • They were headed by people like
    Lord Macaulay.
    • They wanted that at the initial level
    mother tongue could be used but at
    the higher levels, education had to
    be imparted in English.
    • They considered India to be a land
    of the uncivilized and took upon
    themselves the task to civilize its
    people.
    H. 1. Education is to develop a person’s
    body, mind and soul. Therefore he
    suggested that craft, art, technical
    skill, literacy and education should
    all be integrated into one scheme.
    He called this Nai Talim.
19. Yet, there were some Indians like
    Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath
    Tagore, who did not like the British
    educational system due to this
    western set up of learning.
    

A. 1. d. 2. a. 3. c. 4. c. 5. d.
B. 1. Principles, practices

2. Nana Saheb
3. inflow
4. discriminatory
5. conservative
6. Christian, Hinduism, Islam
7. Guns, ammunition, fire
8. adopted, Kanpur
9. Birjis Qadr
10. taluqdars
    C. 1. F 2. F 3. F 4. F 5. T
    D. 1. d. 2. c. 3. e. 4. a. 5. b.
    E. 1. On the ground that Nana Saheb was
    not the biologcal son of the Peshwa,
    he was denied the pension.
11. Activities attempting to convert the
    Indians into Christians and constant
    praise for Christianity over all the
    other religions turned the Indians
    against them.
    3. Bahadur Shah Zafar was chosen as
    the leader of the Revolt of 1857
    because the mutineers wanted to
    bring back the Mughals to power
    and he was the last in the line.
    Therefore the mutineers made him
    the leader in order to bind all the
    sections of the population.
12. The Indian army was reorganised to
    prevent future revolts. It was
    declared that the proportion of
    Indian soldiers in the army would
    be reduced, and the number of
    European soldiers would be
    increased.
13. (i) The Indians were kept out of
    European clubs and could not
    travel in the same compartment
    in trains in which the Englishmen
    travelled.
    (ii) The Arms Act of Lord Lytton
    declared keeping of arms and
    their trade without license as a
    crime, but the Europeans were
    exempted from this law.
    F. 1. Despite the success of the revolt at
    many places, it was suppressed
    because-
    • It lacked a visionary leadership who
    could have a perception of India as
    a nation. Their interests were
    mostly local and personal.
    • It lacked common ideas because the
    Hindu sections wanted the revival
    of the Marathas while the Muslims
    wanted the return of the Mughals.
    The leaders looked at the past as a
    solution to their problem.
    • It lacked the support from the
    middle classes who saw the British
    rule as good for India as it was
    bringing the much desired changes
    in the society through reforms and
    new Acts.
    • It had faith in the old and outdated
    technology as far as warfare and
    putting up a resistance against the
    British was concerned hence, it was
    unlikely to have succeeded on that
    front.
    • Every section in India did not join
    the revolt, in fact the Indian Princes
    preferred to be with the British
    instead of supporting the mutineers.
14. Annexation of Awadh brought
    about the ruination of many
    sections of the population-
    • It not just displaced the Nawab but
    also the ‘taluqdars’ who had
    controlled land and power in the
    countryside for many years
    • Before the coming of the British,
    there were many armed retainers ,
    built forts and maintained a degree
    of autonomy however all that came
    to an end with the British seizing
    their powers
    • With the British seizing power, the
    ‘taluqdars’ were disarmed and their
    forts destroyed , the entire social
    structure of the countryside
    • The ‘taluqdars’ and their peasants
    joined the uprising and were
    supported by the artisans who had
    lost their jobs because of the
    removal of the Nawab
15. The outcomes of the Revolt of 1857
    were-
    • It led to the end of the Company’s
    rule and the Queen of England
    directly took over the affairs of their
    colony India
    • Appointment of the Secretary of
    State who would manage the affairs
    of India in England as well as a
    Viceroy who would replace the
    Governor General in India
    • The Indian army was reorganized
    whereby more number of European
    soldiers were put amongst the Indian
    soldiers in order to avoid the
    occurrence of another revolt
    • Assurance was given to the Indian
    ruling dynasties that no further act of
    aggression would be committed
    against them
    • More respect was given to the
    customs and religious practices of
    the people of India
    • The revolt of 1857 acted as a source
    of inspiration for the Indian National
    Movement
16. The Revolt was suppressed in the
    most brutal fashion though it took
    the British many more years to
    bring peace in the area. The rebels
    were tried and hanged and their
    lands were confiscated. Some of the
    rebels tried to evade capture by the
    British by taking refuge in the
    neighbouring countries but most of
    them were hunted down, captured
    and hanged in public to set an
    example before the others about the
    consequences of going against the
    British authority.
17. The revolt started in the regiment
    of Barrackpur and then spread to
    the rest of the country. After looting
    the guns and the ammunition, the
    rebels marched towards Meerut and
    from there to Delhi where they
    reached the court of Bahadur Shah
    Zafar. On the way to Delhi, the
    rebels were joined by other rebels
    who came from places like Jhansi,
    Awadh, Lucknow, Bareily, Arrah
    and Kanpur. It spread through most
    of North India but was not joined
    by the rest of the country.
    G. 1. • The Khurda revolt of 1817 was
    an armed uprising against the
    British, which impacted other
    district of Odisha like Cuttack. It
    is also known as the Paika
    Rebellion or Paika Bidroha
    which was led by Bakshi
    Jagabandhu.
    • The revolt began on May 10,
    1857, at Meerut as a sepoy
    mutiny. It was initiated by sepoys
    in the Bengal Presidency against
    the British officers. This War of
    Independence marked the end of
    rule by the British East India
    Company.
18. The policy of economic exploitation
    followed by the British affected all
    sections of Indian society. Due to
    high revenue demands and ruthless
    system of revenue collection, life of
    the peasants became miserable.
    They lost most of their traditional
    rights and were deprived of their
    land.
    The sepoys or Indian soldiers
    formed about seven-eighth of the
    total British troops in India. But
    they were often subjected to
    discriminatory provisions and rules
    by their British superiors. Besides,
    they were paid much less than
    British soldiers.
    H. 1. As the Indian Rebellion of 1857
    spread, Sepoy regiments reached
    the Mughal Court at Delhi. Because
    of Zafar’s neutral views on religions,
    many Indian kings and regiments
    accepted and declared him as the
    Emperor of India.
19. The policy of economic exploitation
    followed by the British affected all
    sections of Indian society. Due to
    high revenue demands and ruthless
    system of revenue collection, life of
    the peasants became miserable.
    They lost most of their traditional
    rights and were deprived of their
    land. Due to the massive inflow of
    cheap goods manufactured in
    British factories, Indian hand-made
    goods lost their market. Besides
    being less costly, machine-made
    goods were also available in large
    quantities. This led to the
    impoverishement of Indian artisans
    and crafts persons.